Surface Bony Landmarks

  Palpation from – External Occipital Protuberance Spinous Processes of Vertebrae ( At C7 ) Clavicle Spinous Process of Scapula ( At T3) Inferior Angle of Scapula Iliac crest ( At L4 ) *Note the spine landmarks Why is the L4 level important? Spinal tap is done between level L3 and L4. *find out acromion…

Pathology of Common Glomerular Diseases

Some terminology Azotemia Definition: Raised blood urea nitrogen and creatinine in blood. Due to decreased GFR Causing biochemical abnormality Cause may be: Renal Extrarenal Pre-renal: hypoperfusion (low BP) Post-renal: obstruction Uraemia Definition: Azotemia + clinical signs & symptoms Cause may be: Metabolic Endocrine Gastrointestinal: Uraemic gastroenteritis Peripheral nerves: peripheral neuropathy Heart: Uraemic fibrinous pericarditis Proteinuria…

Micturition

Micturition: Process by which urinary bladder empties. It is a complex act involving both autonomic & somatic nerve pathways & several reflexes that can be either inhibited or facilitated by higher centers in the brain. Micturition involves 2 important steps: Bladder fills progressively tension in bladder wall increases Initiates a nervous reflex micturition reflex: empties…

Kidney & Blood Pressure

The arterial system is not very distensible (if distensible, then BP can be easily maintained when there is increase in volume), therefore arterial blood volume ∞ arterial blood pressure. Determinants of arterial BP Cardiac Output (CO) Total Peripheral Resistance (TPR) Therefore, BP = CO x TPR Scenario Effect of increase in blood volume towards blood…